2020, Vol. 39
2. 湖南省农业环境生态研究所, 长沙 410125;
3. 农业部长江中游平原农业环境重点实验室, 长沙 410125;
4. 农田土壤重金属污染防控与修复湖南省重点实验室, 长沙 410125
2. Hunan Institute of Agri-Environment and Ecology, Changsha 410125, China;
3. Ministry of Agriculture Key Laboratory of Agri-Environment in the Middle Reach Plain of Yangtze River, Changsha 410125, China;
4. Hunan Province Key Laboratory of Prevention, Control and Remediation of Soil Heavy Metal Pollution, Changsha 410125, China
温室气体排放导致全球气候变暖等一系列生态环境问题引起了当今社会的广泛关注。甲烷（CH4）和氧化亚氮（N2O）是两种重要温室气体，其单位分子的增温潜能分别是二氧化碳（CO2）的25倍和298倍[1-3]。据IPCC第五次评估报告，全球大气中CH4和N2O浓度已由工业革命前的715 μL·m-3和270 μL·m-3增至2011年的1803 μL·m-3和324 μL·m-3[4]。农业源是大气CH4和N2O的主要排放源，分别占全球人为排放CH4和N2O的50%和43%以上，我国农业源释放的温室气体总量占中国总温室气体的比例已超过17.0%[5-8]，因此，采用有效的农田管理措施缓解农田温室气体排放具有十分重要的意义。
水旱轮作是我国的重要耕作模式之一，指在同一田块上，按季节有序地交替种植水稻和旱地作物（小麦、油菜、蔬菜、蚕豆、棉花等）的一种种植模式，主要分布在长江和淮海流域，种植面积约470万hm2[9]。水旱轮作系统农田温室气体排放受水肥管理、耕作栽培等农艺措施的影响[10-12]。因此，采用合适的农田管理措施对减缓农田温室气体排放具有重要的现实意义。本文通过探讨水稻-小麦、水稻-油菜、水稻-紫云英等水旱轮作模式下农田CH4和N2O的排放差异，分析其影响因素，并提出相应的减排对策，旨在为水旱轮作模式下土壤温室气体减排提供科学参考。
1 水旱轮作对农田CH4和N2O排放的影响 1.1 CH4排放与水稻-冬水休闲相比，水稻-干旱休闲更有利于降低CH4排放。张广斌等[13]研究发现水稻-冬水休闲系统的稻季CH4排放通量比水稻-干旱休闲高118.5%。相比稻-闲、稻-稻，农田采取稻-油、稻-麦或玉米-水稻等水旱轮作模式能有效减少CH4排放[6, 14-16]。稻-麦轮作的CH4平均排放通量仅为水稻-冬水田的1/3[17]；稻-麦和稻-油菜轮作周年CH4排放量比稻-淹水休闲显著降低24.0%~90.5%和89.4%[18-19]。双季稻田改为水旱轮作，土壤CH4排放量明显降低[20-22]，与双季稻种植模式相比，早稻-玉米、玉米-晚稻CH4排放量分别降低53.6%~88.0%和54.6%~85.4%[21-23]；油菜-早稻-甘薯||晚大豆相比油菜-双季稻CH4周年排放显著降低47.0%、紫云英-早稻-甘薯||晚大豆相比紫云英-双季稻CH4周年排放显著降低94.0%[24]。
1.2 N2O排放水旱轮作系统的N2O排放量显著高于持续淹水农田系统。与冬闲水田相比，冬季旱作处理的土壤N2O的排放量明显升高，与水稻-冬水田相比，江长胜等[19]研究中稻麦轮作增加3.7倍，莫永亮等[25]研究中增加6.2倍，宿敏敏[26]研究中增加48.7%~56.5%、稻-油增加4.5倍[19]。与双季稻相比，稻-玉、玉-稻分别增加50.6%和21.9%~86.1%[16, 21, 23]。稻-紫云英N2O平均排放通量比冬闲土壤的N2O排放通量低，主要与紫云英利用土壤氮素转变为有机氮有关[27]。
1.3 综合温室效应水旱轮作虽增加农田土壤N2O排放，但显著降低了CH4的排放，降低了农田系统的综合净增温潜势（表 1）。与双季稻种植相比，稻-玉米、玉米-稻均显著降低农田系统综合增温潜势。稻-麦轮作、稻-油轮作和稻-儿菜轮作比稻-冬水休闲综合增温潜势分别减少73.1%、24.7%和40.7%。
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表 1 不同轮作模式CH4和N2O周年排放总量及增温潜势 Table 1 Green warming potential of CH4 and N2O during crop growing season in whole year |
水旱轮作模式下CH4排放通量和排放量随灌水量的减少而降低[29-30]。由于稻季节水灌溉增加了土壤通透性，破坏了产CH4菌生命活动所需要的极严格厌氧条件，导致CH4排放量降低[31-34]，因此，稻季节水灌溉对稻季和旱作季CH4排放均有抑制作用[33-34]。徐莹[35]研究表明，稻-油模式下稻季实行湿润式间歇灌溉、干旱式间歇灌溉和旱作栽培的CH4周年累积排放量比常规灌溉分别减少了17.0%~66.0%、39.0%~85.0%和60.0%~91.0%；杭玉浩等[36]采用水稻季控制灌溉的稻季和小麦季CH4排放通量较传统灌溉分别减少了79.9%和26.5%。
2.1.2 水分管理对N2O排放的影响稻季水分管理对稻季和非稻季N2O排放均有影响。持续淹水稻田N2O排放量很低[37-38]，稻季晒田及干湿交替可以促进水旱轮作系统稻季和非稻季周年N2O排放[39-40]。邹建文[41]研究表明持续淹水处理的N2O-N季节排放总量相当于0.01%~0.02%化肥氮，而淹水-烤田-淹水处理的为0.11%~0.56%；杭玉浩等[36]研究表明在稻-麦轮作系统中，水稻季控制灌溉的N2O排放比传统灌溉增加22.0%~35.5%，小麦季增加11.3%~25.0%。徐莹[35]监测稻-油模式下稻季湿润式、干旱式间歇灌溉和旱作栽培，油菜季N2O累积排放量比传统灌溉分别增加了7.6%~17.5%、18.5%~19.3%和23.6%~36.2%。由于淹水灌溉降低了土壤Eh，反硝化过程彻底将NO3-还原为N2，减少了N2O的产生，而稻季干湿交替为氮素硝化与反硝化反应创造了良好环境，促进了土壤N2O的产生与排放[37, 42-43]。
2.2 施肥管理 2.2.1 施肥管理对CH4排放的影响化肥施用对水旱轮作系统中CH4排放量的影响尚未明确。普遍认为，适当增施氮、磷等肥料，有利于产CH4菌生命体的构建，但随着施肥量的增加，加快了根际CH4的氧化，从而降低CH4排放[44]。左怀峰[45]和杨波[46]研究发现，稻-麦轮作施用205.1 kg N·hm-2和240.0 kg N·hm-2的CH4累积排放量比不施肥分别增加41.1%和29.5%；有研究表明，随着施肥量增加，早稻-马铃薯和水稻-蚕豆轮作的CH4周年累计排放量分别增加2.3~3.8倍和1.3~1.4倍[45-46]；宿敏敏等[18, 26]研究表明，低于传统施肥量的水稻-小麦轮作系统CH4排放比不施肥增加11.3%，而传统施肥处理减少48.9%；刘少文等[47]和胡安永等[48]也表明紫云英-水稻轮作模式下施用化肥比不施肥对照较大幅度减少CH4排放。
水旱轮作系统施用缓释化肥CH4排放量明显低于普通化肥，主要由于缓释肥含复合增效剂，铵态氮始终处于较高的水平，加剧了CH4在土壤大气界面的氧化，使CH4排放降低[49]。左怀峰[45]研究发现施用脲酶抑制剂和控释肥，农田CH4排放总量比化肥处理分别减少了13.0%和45.5%。胡玉麟等[50]研究缓控肥替代化肥对水稻-豇豆轮作系统温室气体减排效果显著。
不同有机肥影响水旱轮作系统CH4排放。郭腾飞等[51]研究显示，稻-麦轮作施用秸秆比单施尿素的CH4周年排放量分别增加14.0%和98.7%；单季稻-小麦和双季稻-油菜轮作模式，随着秸秆施入量增加，CH4周年累计排放量分别增加1.4~6.0倍[6, 14, 52]和2.1~3.3倍[6, 14]，邹建文[41]研究表明，稻麦轮作施用菜饼、秸秆或牛粪与化肥配施处理比单施化肥CH4季节排放总量分别增加252.3%、249.7%和45.0%，一方面有机物质是生成产CH4前体的基质来源，另一方面，有机物质的分解降低土壤Eh，从而促进CH4产排[53-54]；施用的有机肥中，沼渣肥、菌肥等腐熟的有机肥CH4排放量最低。有研究表明猪厩肥处理与化肥处理几乎无差异。主要是腐熟后的有机肥可供利用的有机质前体被消耗，因而对CH4排放的促进作用不明显。
2.2.2 施肥管理对N2O排放的影响施用化肥显著增加水旱轮作系统N2O的排放。化肥氮是N2O产生的主要前体，为N2O的产生提供了基质，因此化肥施用通常会促进N2O排放[55-60]。邹建文[41]认为稻-麦轮作系统中，随着氮肥施用量的增加，N2O排放量增加；徐鹏等[61]也证实稻-油轮作模式下施化肥处理N2O排放量显著高于不施氮肥处理。与不施肥相比，稻-麦轮作模式下施入化肥，稻季和旱季N2O排放通量分别增加71.4%~111.5%和41.7%~61.2%[26, 46]，周年排放量增加1.5~27.1倍[6, 14, 62]，双季稻-油菜周年排放量则增加6.2~12.3倍[6, 14]。
缓控释氮肥的氮素释放速率较慢，释放时间长，降低土壤N2O的排放。尹高飞[63]证实了与化肥相比，等氮量缓释肥料施入后稻季和蚕豆季N2O累积排放分别减少13.0%和20.4%。
施用有机肥对水旱轮作系统N2O排放影响比较复杂。有研究表明，在稻麦轮作系统下，水稻季节小麦秸秆还田显著减少了稻季N2O的排放，同时稻秆残留对后季非水稻季节的排放也有抑制作用[64]；Zou等[65]和柴凯斌[52]研究发现稻季麦秸还田较麦秸不还田能显著降低N2O排放达18.0%~38.0%；水稻-蚕豆轮作系统施用156 kg N·hm-2的有机肥，稻季和蚕豆季N2O排放较不施肥分别增加87.1%和191.7%，但其增长幅度小于等量的化肥施入[63]；李喜喜[66]研究表明增施50.0%~100.0%猪粪有机肥，稻-麦轮作整个生育期N2O累积排放量升高66.4%~121.6%；牛厩肥、猪厩肥和菜饼处理稻麦生长季N2O排放总量比常规化肥处理分别增加17.0%、7.0%、6.0%，而秸秆施用稻季N2O季节排放总量较无秸秆处理减少了8.0%~88.0%，全轮作周期内N2O减排16.0%[41]。有机肥对稻-旱轮作模式下N2O排放影响不一，可能的原因是秸秆还田提高了土壤中C/N，降低了N2O排放；施用量、C/N、氮含量和形态不同，影响其在土壤中氮形态转化和农作物吸收利用的差异，导致了N2O排放结果的差异[67-68]。
2.3 轮作模式 2.3.1 不同轮作模式对CH4排放的影响不同轮作模式对CH4排放的影响不同，双季稻-冬季作物轮作模式普遍高于单季稻-旱作模式。黄太庆[14]研究表明双季稻-油菜轮作的CH4排放量比单季稻-小麦轮作系统高出12.7%~97.7%；伍思平等[69]显示紫云英-双季稻和冬闲-双季稻模式的CH4累积排放比油菜-中稻分别增加了127.0%和118.0%。前茬不同旱季作物对稻季CH4排放影响达极显著水平，CH4排放量表现为紫云英-水稻>休闲-水稻>小麦-水稻>油菜-水稻>黑麦草-水稻[70]。
2.3.2 不同轮作模式对N2O排放的影响水旱轮作系统N2O排放因不同作物的轮作方式而不同。有研究表明，在不同轮作系统中，N2O周年排放量表现为：双季稻-油菜轮作>单季稻-小麦轮作[6, 14]。张岳芳等[71]发现水旱轮作系统旱作季种植不同作物N2O平均排放通量表现为：油菜>冬小麦>黑麦草>休闲>紫云英。钟川等[24]研究发现，不同水旱轮作模式的N2O周年排放量为紫云英－早稻－甘薯||晚大豆>油菜－早稻－甘薯‖晚大豆>紫云英－早稻－晚稻>油菜－早稻－晚稻>马铃薯－早稻－晚稻。由于不同作物的水肥利用效率和农田管理措施的差异，作物对碳氮循环的影响各不相同，导致N2O的产排不同[72]。
3 水旱轮作系统CH4和N2O减排措施建议 3.1 推行稻季节水灌溉，减少CH4排放由于CH4与N2O两者存在互为消长的关系，因此优化农田水分管理应该在考虑这两种温室气体综合排放的基础上制定合理措施。在水旱轮作系统内，稻季温室气体主要贡献因子为CH4，与常规灌溉相比，节水灌溉方式虽可增加土壤N2O排放，但显著降低了CH4的排放，降低了全球增温潜势（表 2）。因此，采用稻季节水、中期烤田，能有效降低综合温室效应。
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表 2 与常规灌溉相比不同水分管理农田温室气体排放 Table 2 Greenhouse gas emissions under different water management patterns compared to conventional irrigation |
化肥施用量增加，N2O排放增加，因此在不影响水稻产量的前提下，考虑减少氮肥的施用。（1）提倡测土配方施肥。在实际的田间管理中，稻-麦轮作系统氮肥的施用也可遵循余庆福等[73]推荐施氮量（麦季210 kg·hm-2+稻季90 kg·hm-2），降低N2O排放。（2）选用缓释化肥替代普通化肥或分次施肥方式有利于提高氮肥利用效率，减少氮肥损失，抑制N2O排放。随着农业技术的进步，通过使用N2O抑制剂来减少温室气体的排放，也逐渐得到了广泛的认可，脲酶抑制剂和硝化抑制剂等氮肥抑制剂可在不减少作物产量的前提下有效减少N2O的排放。
3.3 优化轮作模式，减少周年增温潜势加强不同轮作系统作物搭配方式对温室气体排放量的对比研究，探索合理的轮作模式。在保证作物产量的同时，因地制宜地搭配选用根系大、活力强、温室气体排放量低的作物品种。稻-麦轮作、稻-油轮作和水稻-紫云英是我国主要的水旱轮作种植模式。研究表明稻-麦模式周年平均产量比油稻模式高4018 kg·hm-2，经济效益高出6246元·hm-2 [74]，旱作季CH4和N2O的总增温潜势减少14.2%[71]，单位产量的GWP比双季稻-油菜低0.1~3.0 kg CO2·kg-1（表 3）。不施氮的条件下，水稻-紫云英和水稻-休闲处理间CH4和N2O总增温潜势无显著差异，但水稻-紫云英更有利于作物增产[71]。因此在施氮条件下选用水稻-冬小麦种植模式、不施氮条件下选用水稻-紫云英种植模式有利于减少水旱轮作系统旱作季的温室效应。
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表 3 不同轮作模式下CH4和N2O全球增温潜势及排放强度 Table 3 GWP and greenhouse gas intensity of CH4 and N2O for different rotation patterns |
大量的研究表明农田N2O和CH4的排放互为消长。加强农田水肥管理是控制CH4排放的主导因素，加大研发和推广CH4抑制剂力度是减缓水旱轮作系统CH4排放的有力手段。对N2O而言，提高缓释肥、控释肥料的使用对缓解其大量排放具有更重要的科学意义和实践价值。在今后研究过程中，应综合考虑农作过程对农田土壤CH4和N2O排放的影响，积极研究探索有效的CH4和N2O综合减排措施，减轻因农业活动产生的温室气体对全球气候变暖及其所带来的环境问题的影响。
近年来，许多学者对水旱轮作不同种植模式下农田温室气体排放进行了研究，大量研究结果表明，合理的水旱轮作有助于增加作物产量，维持土壤肥力。因此，如何在平衡其正面作用的同时减少温室气体排放是今后研究的趋势。不同水稻品种间温室气体排放存在明显差异，深入研究水稻品种改良对温室气体排放的影响及其机理，可在增加作物产量的同时实现温室气体减排。肥料的种类和用量等对水旱轮作系统土壤温室气体排放产生影响，肥料管理对土壤性状造成的变化会直接影响根际土壤微生物如产CH4菌、硝化细菌和反硝化细菌的种群丰度与活性。但目前我国针对这方面的研究还相对较少，因此，在今后的研究中可以考虑从轮作体系中作物的根际微生态效应等方面展开研究，了解水旱轮作系统养分状况的周期性变化规律，深入地揭示肥料氮素的去向，为土壤固氮和温室气体减排提供理论依据。
目前，我国虽然在温室气体综合减排方面也取得了一些成果，但是没有形成系统的全面的减排措施，目前公认的、广泛应用的、效果明显且持久的水旱轮作系统温室气体减排措施相对较少，缺少科学系统的评估。因此，在以后的研究中，可从整个水旱轮作系统的角度出发，利用碳足迹的评价方法，综合考虑多种影响温室气体排放并在此基础上制定合理的减排措施。
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